Most semiconductor functional devices are based on conventional p-n junctions. For example, conventional photodetectors, which are used for detection of light in a wide spectrum range from visible to far-infrared, use n-type and p-type semiconductors (with various band gaps) to form p-n junctions. Other examples are p-n junction photovoltaic (PV) devices, such as solar cells, which are important for the conversion of solar and thermal energy into electricity. For a single junction cell with one band gap (at a concentration of one sun), the maximum theoretical conversion efficiency is about 30%. To achieve high conversion efficiency, multiple junction cells with different band gap materials can be used. For example, triple junction solar cells (containing materials with three different energy gaps) have a theoretical conversion efficiency of 56% at 1,000 suns, and a current state-of-the-art efficiency of about 32% at 1 sun and approximately 41% at 240 suns. One of the obstacles that affect practical PV device performance is a limitation in the availability of semiconductor materials with a range of band gaps that adequately span the solar (or heat) spectrum and that can be effectively integrated within a single device or system, as well as current matching between multiple junctions. Other obstacles in these conventional p-n junction semiconductor devices are related to a finite carrier diffusion length and a large resistance of Esaki tunnel junction that is used to connect different p-n junctions. Therefore, it is an objective of the present disclosure to provide innovative interband cascade architectures to overcome the limitations in conventional semiconductor p-n junction devices.